Faculty Office Bldg. (47), Room 27C
Phone: 805.756.2543
https://history.calpoly.edu
Department Chair: Joel Orth
Academic Programs
Program name | Program type |
---|---|
Asian Studies | Minor |
History | BA, MA, Minor |
Historians study the past in its variety and complexity. With such an analysis, students of history gain multiple perspectives on the present and an aptitude to plan intelligently for the future. Although the lessons to be learned from the past are rarely simple, solutions to present-day problems rest on comprehension of historical forces and events. History deepens our understanding of other peoples and cultures. All courses offered in the History Department seek to examine the issues of race, gender, class, and cultural diversity.
The study of history and its methods prepares students for a wide range of careers while also sensitizing them to the complexity and diversity of the past and present. History is an excellent foundation for a broadly based education in the liberal arts.
Undergraduate Programs
BA History
A degree in history is excellent preparation for students interested in a teaching career, the legal profession, or advanced work in the discipline. Students wishing to become business executives, administrators, and public servants profit immensely by gaining the methodological skills of the historian. Historians learn to gather, synthesize, analyze, and interpret evidence; they become skilled in presenting their conclusions to a general audience in a lucid and logical manner.
Degree Requirements and Curriculum
Asian Studies Minor
Provides interdisciplinary understanding of Asia – particularly its rich and varied histories, arts, languages, philosophies, religions and social patterns. Details and application forms are available from the History Department.
Minor Requirements
History Minor
Students choosing to add a strong historical dimension to their major field may enroll in the minor program in history. The curriculum stresses reading and writing skills as well as the ability to weigh evidence and think critically. Details and application forms are available from the History Department.
Minor Requirements
Master of Arts Degree in History
General Characteristics
The program in history emphasizes concentrated study in area specialties, with students gaining a thorough grounding in the latest historiography. In addition, the program maintains that historical study must be predicated upon sustained research, engagement with historical problems, and written communication. The Cal Poly History MA Program:
- is tailored to students who want to pursue further graduate studies and careers in public history, education, museums and local or state government.
- takes students deep into particular cultures and eras and hones their command of historical research and analysis.
- develops students’ critical thinking, written and oral communication, and their understanding of the rich diversity of human experience.
- allows students to work closely with faculty mentors in seminars and in a range of independent projects.
Program of Study
- Rigorous seminar work over a diverse range of historical topics and fields.
- Two tracks of study with unique culminating experiences.
- The Comprehensive Examinations option concludes with in-depth supervised study of two different general historical fields (48 units total).
- The MA Thesis option concludes with the writing of an original historical thesis over three academic quarters, supervised by three committee members (49 units total).
Foreign Language Study
Students are encouraged to learn and use foreign languages in the MA program. Students who plan further graduate study in history are particularly encouraged in this direction since proficiency in two foreign languages is usually required in doctoral programs.
Applications
Applications for admission are submitted through the Cal State Apply website. Requests for further information should be directed to the Admissions Office or the Graduate Coordinator of the MA History program. All applications should include a writing sample (preferably an extended historical research paper), two recommendation letters, and undergraduate transcripts.
Degree Requirements and Curriculum
HIST Courses
HIST 100. Introduction to the Study of History. 2 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W
Prerequisite: History major.
Introduction to the study of history, focusing on methods, topics, skills in the History major at Cal Poly, and internship and career opportunities. To be taken in the first year of study at Cal Poly. 2 seminars.
HIST 110. Western Civilization: Ancient to Renaissance. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W
Beginnings of western civilization from the river valley societies of the Middle East, circa 3,000 BCE to the Renaissance in Western Europe to 1550 CE. Political, economic, social, intellectual, and artistic development of that period. 4 lectures.
HIST 111. Western Civilization: Reformation to the Present. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: W
Development of western civilization from 1550 CE to the present. Comparison of liberal modernization of the West with the conservative modernization in Central, East and Southeast Europe. Political, economic, social, intellectual, and artistic developments of that period. Particular attention to understanding dynamics that produce pluralistic mass societies such as Great Britain and France, and authoritarian mass societies such as Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. 4 lectures.
HIST 200. Special Problems for Undergraduates. 1-4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: Consent of department chair.
Individual investigation, research, studies, or surveys of selected problems. Total credit limited to 4 units, with a maximum of 4 units per quarter.
HIST 201. United States History to 1865. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
2020-21 or later: GE Area D1
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D1
USCP
Survey of the first half of U.S. history, including: contact and settlement, American Revolution, slavery, westward expansion, early California, Civil War, and California and U.S. Constitutions. Particular attention to how race, class, and gender shaped changing definitions of freedom and equality. Not open to students with credit in HIST 206. Course may be offered in classroom-based or online format. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST 201/HNRS 203. Fulfills GE Area D1 and USCP.
HIST 202. United States History Since 1865. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F,W,SP,SU
2020-21 or later: GE Area D1
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D1
USCP
Survey of the second half of U.S. history, including reconstruction, industrialization, the regulatory state, foreign affairs, and the remaking of citizenship rights and society. Particular attention to how race, class, and gender shaped changing definitions of freedom and equality. Not open to students with credit in HIST 206. Course may be offered in classroom-based or online format. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST/HNRS 202. Fulfills GE Area D1 and USCP.
HIST 206. United States Cultures. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F,W,SP,SU
2020-21 or later: GE Area D1
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D1
USCP
The social, cultural, constitutional, and political history of African American, Asian American, Native American, Latinx and other underrepresented groups. Not open to students with credit in HIST 201 or HIST 202. Course may be offered in classroom-based or online format. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Area D1 and USCP.
HIST 208. Survey of California History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: W, SP
USCP
Survey of California history from the pre-Columbian period to the present. Native American culture, Spanish imperialism, the Mexican War, gold rush, immigration, dominance of the Southern Pacific Railroad, progressivism, growth of Los Angeles, and California's impact on national and world economy and politics. 4 lectures. Fulfills USCP.
HIST 210. World History to 1800. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
2020-21 or later catalog: GE Area D2
2019-20 or earlier: GE Area D2 or D3
Global history from the beginnings of organized agriculture to the Industrial Revolution. Focus on causation, using geography and cultural creation to highlight economic, political, social, and intellectual developments of the major civilizations of earth. Not open to students with credit in HIST 221 or HIST 222. Field trip may be required. Course may be offered in classroom-based or online format. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Area D2 (GE Area D2 or GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 213. Modern Political Economy. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
2020-21 or later catalog: GE Area D2
2019-20 or earlier: GE Area D2 or D3
The relationship between states and economies in the modern period. Modernization, industrialization, and colonialism. Modern systems of political economy, especially mercantilism, capitalism, communism, and social democracy. Modern theories of political economy, especially liberalism, Marxism, and Keynesianism. Course may be offered in classroom-based or online format. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST/HNRS 213. Fulfills GE Area D2 (GE Area D2 or GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 216. Comparative Social Movements. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
2020-21 or later catalog: GE Area D2
2019-20 or earlier: GE Area D2 or D3
History of social movements worldwide from the late nineteenth century to the present. May include, but not limited to: socialism and other labor movements, feminism, white supremacy, pacifism, decolonization, Indigenous peoples, racial justice, LGBTQIA, environmentalism, fair trade, and independent living movement. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST/HNRS 216. Fulfills GE Area D2 (GE Area D2 or GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 221. World History, Beginnings to 1000 CE. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: SP
2020-21 or later catalog: GE Area D2
2019-20 or earlier: GE Area D2 or D3
History of world societies in comparative global perspective. Cross-cultural exchange, interaction, and conflict in the making of the world to 1000, concentrating on the rise of earliest human communities, growth of states, economic, political, and cultural transformations. Not open to students with credit in HIST 210. Field trip may be required. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Area D2 (GE Area D2 or GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 222. World History, 1000-1800. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, SP
2020-21 or later catalog: GE Area D2
2019-20 or earlier: GE Area D2 or D3
History of world societies in comparative global perspective. Cross-cultural exchange, interaction, and conflict in the making of the world to 1800, concentrating on the global interaction and integration, cultural and ecological exchange, economic, political, and cultural transformations. Not open to students with credit in HIST 210. Field trip may be required. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Area D2 (GE Area D2 or GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 223. World History, 1800 - Present. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F,W,SP,SU
2020-21 or later catalog: GE Area D2
2019-20 or earlier: GE Area D2 or D3
Comparative history of Western and non-Western societies in global perspective. Examines the history of cross-cultural exchange, interaction, and conflict in the making of the modern world, concentrating on economic, political, and cultural transformations that facilitated and emerged from imperialism. Course may be offered in classroom-based or online format. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST/HNRS 223. Fulfills GE Area D2 (GE Area D2 or GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 225. The World at War. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
2020-21 or later catalog: GE Area D2
2019-20 or earlier: GE Area D2 or D3
Comparative history of the causes and consequences of global warfare for diverse societies and individuals from prehistory to the present. Relationships between global warfare and environment, technology, migration, economics, politics, religion, art, popular culture, law, ethnicity, class, and gender. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Area D2 (GE Area D2 or GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 270. Selected Topics. 1-4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: Open to undergraduate students and consent of instructor.
Directed group study of selected topics. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. Total credit limited to 8 units. 1 to 4 lectures.
HIST 303. Research and Writing Seminar in History. 5 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
Prerequisite: HIST 100 or History minor; completion of GE Area A2 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area A1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and completion of GE Area A3 with a grade of C- or better.
Designed to develop student's ability to research and write an interpretive paper on a specific topic. Seminar participants practice the skills of library research, historical and historiographical analysis, and writing and revising. Paper in lieu of final examination. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. Course may be offered in classroom-based, online, or hybrid format. 4 lectures and research project.
HIST 304. Historiography. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
Prerequisite: HIST 303; History major.
Theoretical approaches used to study the past, including scholarship on history and memory, the influence of interdisciplinary studies, the significance of race and gender as categories of analysis, and the place of history and the historian in contemporary society. Course may be offered in classroom-based or online format. 3 seminar meetings and research project.
HIST 306. The Witch-Hunts in Europe, 1400-1800. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one course in GE Area D2 (or in GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
A history of the development of witchcraft ideas, persecutions, and skepticism in the western world from 1400 to 1800, focusing on the legal, economic, social, and intellectual currents that produced, fired, and eventually ended the phenomenon. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 307. European Thought 1800-2000. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: W
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one lower-division course in GE Area D.
Intellectual and cultural history of Europe from the nineteenth century to the present. Liberalism, radical thought, feminism, evolutionary theory, psycho-analysis, structuralism, existentialism, and postmodernism. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 308. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one course in GE Area D2 (or in GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
The African, Islam and Euro-American dimensions of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, with focus on its varying roots, organization and impact on cross-cultural and global levels. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST/HNRS 308. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 309. Cultures of West Africa and the African Diaspora. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one course in GE Area D2 (or in GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
The cultures of West African and the African Diaspora, with special attention to the intersection of Animist, Islamic and Western cultures, and the survival of African cultures in the Americas as manifested in the artistic, religious, literary, and other humanistic legacies of the African Diaspora. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 310. East Asian Culture and Civilization. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one course in GE Area D2 (or in GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
The pre-modern and modern histories of China and Japan. Focus on the traditional era, the transition to modernity, cultural uniqueness within East Asian civilization, and western images of Asia. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST 310/HNRS 312. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 311. Comparative World Environmental History & Sustainability Since 1492. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: SP
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Sustainability Focused
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one course in GE Area D2 (or in GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
Comparative history of landscape transformation, conservation policy, and environmental beliefs of North America, Latin America, Europe, China, and Africa from 1492 to the late 20th century. Historical comparison of biophysical, cultural, economic, and political change connected to issues of sustainability in world regions. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 313. Modern Middle East. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one course in GE Area D2 (or in GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
Political, social, and economic development of the Middle East from the late Ottoman and Qajar Empires in the 19th century through the formation of nation-states in the 20th. Special attention to imperialism, nationalism, orientalism, modernity/modernization, state-building, revolution, and oil. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs). Formerly HIST 314.
HIST 316. Modern East Asia. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: W, SP
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one course in GE Area D2 (or in GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
Modern histories of China, Japan and Korea: great disruptions of modernity that have transformed these societies, common characteristics of modernity in East Asia, great differences between Chinese, Japanese and Korean histories, and the mutually constitutive nature of these East Asian histories. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 317. The Lure of the Sea. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, SP
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one lower-division course in GE Area D.
The history of the sea, people who travel across it, live alongside or in the midst of it, or simply seek it out. Topics include imperialism, maritime commerce, port cities, littoral societies, piracy, tourism, popular culture. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST/HNRS 317. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 318. The City in the Modern World. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: SP
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one lower-division course in GE Area D.
Comparative history of social, economic, political, and cultural changes in urban life during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Topics may include but are not limited to: commerce and labor; disease and death; conservation and preservation; gender and sexuality; race and ethnicity. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 319. Modern South and Southeast Asia. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one course in GE Area D2 (or in GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
Modern histories of South and Southeast Asia: traditional empires and cultures, spread of modern capitalism, Western and Japanese colonialism, decolonization and independence, ethnic and religious tensions, roles in contemporary economy and geopolitics. Course may be offered in classroom-based or online format. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 320. Colonial and Revolutionary America. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one lower-division course in GE Area D.
Settlement and evolution of British America, background to the imperial dispute, events leading to the Revolution, Articles of Confederation, Constitution, the national economy, roles of and impact on African-Americans, women, Native Americans and Loyalists. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 321. Civil War America. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: W
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one lower-division course in GE Area D.
The experiences of nineteenth-century Americans. Focus on industrialization, antebellum reform, slavery, the Civil War battlefield and homefront, Reconstruction, and the creation of a New South. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 322. Modern America. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: W, SP
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and completion of GE Area D1.
American history since 1900. Focus on domestic and foreign policy interactions, struggle of disenfranchised groups for social and political equality, and changes in culture and identity. Course may be offered in classroom-based, online, or hybrid format. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST 322/HNRS 323. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 326. United States Foreign Relations since 1898. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and two lower-division courses in GE Area D.
Topics include imperialism, the world wars, the Cold War, decolonization, and globalization. Particular attention to ideologies shaping U.S. policy; ethics and decision-making at multiple levels; and political, economic, social, and cultural consequences of U.S. activity for societies and individuals around the world. Course may be offered in classroom-based, online, or hybrid format. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 334. Modern Europe, 1789-1914. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and two lower-division courses in GE Area D. Recommended: HIST 111.
Europe's 'long nineteenth century' reveals continuity and dramatic changes in politics, social structures and identities, forms of cultural expression, and scientific and technological knowledge. Topics include the French and Industrial revolutions; liberalism; nationalism; socialism; modernism; imperialism; and World War I. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST/HNRS 334. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 335. Modern Europe, 1914-Present. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and two lower-division courses in GE Area D. Recommended: HIST 111.
Examination of twentieth-century European history. Topics include: First World War, World Economic Crisis, communism, fascism, mass culture, shifting gender roles, Second World War, Cold War, Velvet Revolution, and the European Union. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST/HNRS 335. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 336. Britain at War: The British, the Americans and the Struggle for Freedom, 1939-1945. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: SP
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or HIstory major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); completion of GE Area D1; and one course in GE Area D2 (or in GE Area D3 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
Historical examination of Great Britain's challenge to its sovereignty and freedom by the regime of Nazi Germany from 1939-1945. An account of how Britain formed an alliance with the United States, and how that partnership forged a successful campaign that culminated in the survival of Britain and destruction of the Nazi regime. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 337. Colonial Latin America. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one lower-division course in GE Area D.
Survey of Latin American history in the colonial period from 1492 to the early nineteenth century. Special attention to the indigenous cultures, the Iberian civilization, and the evolving relationship between them. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 338. Modern Latin America. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: SP
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one lower-division course in GE Area D.
Social, economic and political history of Latin America from the 19th century to the present. Historical development of economic structures and political and cultural institutions in the region, including Central America, the Hispanic Caribbean, and South America. 4 lectures. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 341. Modern Central America. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: Junior standing.
Political, social, and economic development of Central American countries in the context of regional history and international politics during the nineteenth and twentieth Centuries. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 350. The Scientific Revolution, c. 1500-1800. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: SP
2020-21 or later: Upper-Div GE Area D
2019-20 or earlier catalog: GE Area D5
Prerequisite: Junior standing or History major; completion of GE Area A with grades of C- or better; one course in GE Area B4 with a grade of C- or better (GE Area B1 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs); and one lower-division course in GE Area D. Recommended: One or more courses in GE Area B.
History of the intellectual, social, and cultural changes in the early modern period known as the 'Scientific Revolution.' Main topics include the Copernican Revolution, mechanical philosophy, natural history, and the social and material practices of early modern science. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST/HNRS 350. Fulfills GE Upper-Division D (GE Area D5 for students on the 2019-20 or earlier catalogs).
HIST 355. History of Network and Information Technologies. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: W
Prerequisite: Junior standing.
History of computer networks and other information technologies from the Cold War to the present. ARPANET, USENET, Internet, World Wide Web, Web 2.0. Cybernetics, information theory, data science. Issues of diversity and inclusivity in cyberspace and the information technology professions. 4 lectures.
HIST 400. Special Problems for Advanced Undergraduates. 1-4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
Prerequisite: Consent of department chair.
Individual investigation, research, studies, or surveys of selected problems. Total credit limited to 4 units, with a maximum of 4 units per quarter.
HIST 401. Early America. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Age of exploration. European powers in eastern North America. English settlements, development of the English colonies, with emphasis on Virginia and Massachusetts. Proprietary interests, growth of internal control, and colonial conflicts. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 405. African-American History to 1865. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
History of African Americans from the colonial period to the Civil War, roughly 1619-1865. The slave trade, slavery in the colonies, plantation slavery, the Black West, and free Black culture and institutions. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 406. African-American History from 1865. 4 units
History of African-Americans from the Civil War to the present. Reconstruction, racial segregation, the Harlem Renaissance, the Great Migration, the Civil Rights Movement, Black Feminism and Black Power. 3 lectures and research project. Fulfills USCP.
HIST 407. Science and Society in Cold War America. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: Junior standing and HIST 303; or Junior standing; ISLA 123; and completion of GE Area A3 with a grade of C- or better; or Graduate standing.
American science during the Cold War, including the development of weapons-related technologies, the effects of economic change and foreign policy, ethical debates among scientists, and shifting public perceptions of science. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 408. The Age of Roosevelt: Depression and World War, 1929-50. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: W
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Principle forces affecting the nation's political, social and economic life during the Age of Franklin Roosevelt. Included are the politics of the New Deal, government regulation of the economy and response to the Depression, the rise of the modern presidency, racial and ethnic conflict, the politics of class and gender, the home front at war and post-war tension. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 409. Vietnam War at Home and Abroad. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Interaction of revolutionary Vietnamese nationalism with U.S. foreign policy. Analysis of the conduct of the war. Assessment of the impact of the war on U.S. society. Course may be offered in classroom-based, online, or hybrid format. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 413. Turbulent Decades: The United States in the 1960s and 1970s. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Topics include liberalism, conservatism, civil rights, foreign policy, the war in Vietnam, stagflation and deregulation, and key social and cultural movements. Emphasis on politics, economic conditions, and ideology. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 416. Modern Japan. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or one upper-division course in GE Area D or graduate standing.
Japan's development as a modern state (1800-2000 CE). Themes include Japan's engagement with modernity and nationalism, the emperor system, Japanese imperialist expansion, and postwar reconstruction of Japanese society. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 417. 20th Century China. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or one upper-division course in GE Area D or graduate standing.
Chinese history in the twentieth century: the fall of the Qing Dynasty and founding of Republic of China in 1912, problems of imperialism and modernity, Chinese Communist Party and People's Republic of China since 1949. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 418. Chinese Film and History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or one upper-division course in GE Area D or graduate standing.
Examination of 20th century Chinese history through the use of Chinese feature films. Films (with English subtitles) serve as main texts for understanding the tremendous changes in modern Chinese history, and the evolving relationships between film and Chinese society. 4 lectures.
HIST 419. Modern Southeast Asia. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or one upper-division course in GE Area D or graduate standing.
Modern history of mainland and maritime Southeast Asia, focusing on the development of political institutions and changing political and cultural identities. Early empires, expansion of capitalism, colonial rule and wars through era of independence. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 421. The History of Prostitution. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: SP
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or one upper-division course in GE Area D or graduate standing.
Comparative history of prostitution from antiquity to present. Analysis of prostitution from social, cultural, political, gendered and economic perspectives. Course may be offered in classroom-based, online, or hybrid format. 4 lectures. Crosslisted as HIST/WGQS 421. Formerly WGS 421.
HIST 422. Japanese Postwar Film and History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or one upper-division course in GE Area D or graduate standing. Recommended: HIST 316 or WLC 310 in GE Area D.
Relationships between film and postwar Japanese society; recurring themes and images that link the diverse body of postwar Japanese film. Films (with English subtitles) serve as main texts for understanding of the tremendous changes in recent Japanese history. 3 lectures, 1 activity.
HIST 423. The History of Vietnam. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or one upper-division course in GE Area D or graduate standing.
The history of Vietnam and the influences on its national identities, including migration, cultural adaptations, temporality and territoriality, foreign influences, and racial formations within and outside of the borders of today's Vietnam. Course may be offered in classroom-based, online, or hybrid format. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 424. Organizing and Teaching History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F
Prerequisite: Admission to teacher education program or valid teaching credential.
Organization, selection, presentation, application, and interpretation of subject matter in history in secondary schools. 4 seminars.
HIST 425. History-Social Sciences Student Teaching Seminar. 2 units
Supervised practicum for part-time and full-time student teachers in the Social Science Credential Program. Teaching techniques and strategies useful for addressing a wide range of issues that arise in grades 6-12 social science classrooms. Credit/No Credit grading only. Total credit limited to 8 units. 2 seminars.
HIST 426. Imperial Russia. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Political, social, intellectual and economic roots of Russian Absolutism. Emergence of Russia as an imperial power, reform, reaction and revolution - 1689-1914. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 427. Soviet Russia. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Transformation of Russian autocracy from tsarist to Bolshevik under the impact of World War I and the Revolution of 1917. The formative force of Marxism-Leninism; Civil War; the "experimental" 20s; forced collectivization and industrialization; the Purges; "engineering" a new Soviet Woman and Man for a new communist world; War: Second and Cold. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 428. The Indian Ocean. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
History of the Indian Ocean from pre-Islamic times to the present. Exploration of unity and diversity of interconnected societies of the sea and shores of the Indian Ocean. Examination of geography, trade, travel, naval power and exploration in the political, religious, cultural, maritime and economic history of this vital region. 4 lectures.
HIST 429. Precolonial African History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Survey of African history from earliest times. Ancient African civilizations, Moslem penetration, the rise of indigenous kingdoms and the continuous impact of Atlantic slave trade. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 430. Modern African History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Survey of African history in the 19th and 20th centuries including European colonialism, African resistance, the rise of African nationalism and problems since independence. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 432. United States Environmental History. 4 units
Consideration of major themes in human interactions with the environment from the colonial period to the present. Major topics include: changing subsistence systems; the environmental impact of industrialization; conservation and sustainability; and the rise of modern environmental movements. 3 lectures and a research project.
HIST 433. History of the American West, Southwest Borderlands, and California. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: W
Prerequisite: One upper-division course in GE Area D or HIST 303 (may be taken concurrently).
Historiographical and chronological survey since European contact. Emphasis on the frontier and borderlands concepts, Native America, the Hispanic Southwest, US expansion and conquest, industrial capitalism, inter-societal and transnational economies, immigration, public memory, and racial identity formation. 3 lectures and a research project.
HIST 434. American Women's History to 1870. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or one upper-division course in GE Area D or graduate standing.
Female ideology and experience from the colonial period through the American Civil War. Use of a variety of sources, including women's own writing, in order to understand the history of women as it both reflects and shapes American culture and society. 3 lectures and research project. Crosslisted as HIST/WGQS 434. Formerly WGS 434.
HIST 435. American Women's History from 1870. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
USCP
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or one upper-division course in GE Area D or graduate standing.
The female past in the modern period of U.S. history. Considers how transformations in gender roles are reflective of other significant changes in American culture and society. Emphasis on class, race, and ethnic variations in women's experience. 3 lectures and research project. Crosslisted as HIST/WGQS 435. Fulfills USCP. Formerly WGS 435.
HIST 437. Nazi Germany. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Background of German Romantic Nationalism; national unification and defeat in World War I; the failure of Weimar Democracy and political radicalization; the Nazi political, economic, and social revolution 1933-1939. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 440. Topics and Issues in the History of the United States. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: SP
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Selected topics and issues in United States history. Descriptive subtitles assigned to each course. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. May be repeated to 8 units. 3 lectures and a research project.
HIST 441. Topics and Issues in European History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Selected topics and issues in European history. Descriptive subtitles assigned to each course. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. May be repeated to 8 units. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 442. Topics and Issues in Latin American History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Selected topics and issues in Latin American history. Descriptive subtitles will be assigned to each course. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. May be repeated to 8 units. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 443. Topics and Issues in Asian History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or one upper-division course in GE Area D or graduate standing.
Selected topics and issues in Asian history. Descriptive subtitles will be assigned to each course. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. May be repeated to 8 units. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 444. Topics and Issues in African History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Selected topics and issues in African history. Descriptive subtitles will be assigned to each course. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. May be repeated to 8 units. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 445. Topics and Issues in Comparative History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: W, SP
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Selected topics and issues in comparative history. Descriptive subtitles will be assigned to each course. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. May be repeated to 8 units. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 452. Renaissance and Reformation Europe. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Europe from 1348 to 1620 CE, with topics including the urban milieu, Renaissance philosophy and artistic expression, the new prince, the educational revolution, the Renaissance Church, Martin Luther, Jean Calvin, and the monumental economic, social, and political changes of the sixteenth century. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 453. Religious Wars and Absolutism. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Europe from 1559 to 1715 CE, focusing on the Catholic-Protestant conflict, the rise of the Absolutist state (especially Louis XIV), the "Crisis of the Seventeenth Century," the Thirty Years War, the English Civil War and Cromwell, and the Newtonian Paradigm. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 458. Gender and Sexuality in Modern Europe. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or one upper-division course in GE Area D or graduate standing.
Social, economic, political, and cultural effects of changing gender systems in modern Europe, particularly but not exclusively with regard to sex and sexuality. 3 lectures and research project. Crosslisted as HIST/WGQS 458. Formerly WGS 458.
HIST 459. Imperialism and Postcolonial Studies. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: SP
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or one upper-division course in GE Area D or graduate standing.
The history of imperialism and postcolonial studies and the influences of social, economic, and political impact of the empire system on indigenous people, cultures, economy, and politics. 3 lectures and research project.
HIST 460. Senior Project I. 2 units
Term Typically Offered: F,W,SP,SU
Prerequisite: HIST 303; HIST 304; senior standing; and History major.
Completion of paper or creative project under faculty supervision. Must be historical in nature, investigate a question of significance, include an historiographical analysis, and make an argument based on primary and secondary sources. Take HIST 461 during a subsequent quarter.
HIST 461. Senior Project II. 2 units
Term Typically Offered: F,W,SP,SU
Prerequisite: HIST 303, HIST 304; HIST 460; senior standing; and History major.
Completion of paper or creative project begun in HIST 460 under faculty supervision.
HIST 467. History Internship. 4-12 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
CR/NC
Prerequisite: Junior standing, completion of HIST 303 with grade of B or better and consent of internship coordinator.
Supervised work experience using skills of the discipline of history in a public agency ranging from 12 to 36 hours per week. Interns work directly under the supervision of an employee of the agency and are subject to the professional responsibilities typical of the state. Total credit limited to 12 units. Credit/No Credit grading only.
HIST 470. Selected Advanced Topics. 1-4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Directed group study of selected topics for advanced students. Open to undergraduate and graduate students. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. Total credit limited to 8 units. 1 to 4 lectures.
HIST 475. Arabia and the Arab Gulf States. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
History of Arabia from pre-Islamic times to the present. Political, cultural, social and economic history of Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Yemen. Emphasis on regional connectivity, imperialism and the origins of modern Gulf nation states, and historical roots to contemporary problems in the region. 4 lectures.
HIST 477. Topics and Issues in Public Engagements with History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W
Prerequisite: HIST 303 or graduate standing.
Intensive study of how contemporary historians engage the public. Focus on tools and methodologies. Special attention to forms of public engagement designed for diverse audiences. Organized around individual and group projects. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. Total credit limited to 8 units. 4 lectures.
HIST 485. Cooperative Education Experience. 6 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
CR/NC
Prerequisite: Sophomore standing and consent of instructor.
Part-time work experience in business, industry, government, and other areas of student career interest. Positions are paid and usually require relocation and registration in course for two consecutive quarters. Formal report and evaluation by work supervisor required. No major credit allowed; total credit limited to 12 units. Credit/No Credit grading only.
HIST 495. Cooperative Education Experience. 12 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
CR/NC
Prerequisite: Sophomore standing and consent of instructor.
Full-time work experience in business, industry, government, and other areas of student career interest. Positions are paid and usually require relocation and registration in course for two consecutive quarters. Formal report and evaluation by work supervisor required. No major credit allowed; total credit limited to 24 units. Credit/No Credit grading only.
HIST 500. Special Problems for Graduate Students. 1-4 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
Prerequisite: Graduate standing in History.
Individual investigation, research, studies, or surveys of selected problems. Total credit limited to 8 units.
HIST 504. Graduate Study in History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: W
Prerequisite: Graduate standing in History.
Weekly reading and discussion course on practical methods and theoretical approaches to the study and writing of history. 4 seminars.
HIST 505. Graduate Seminar in United States History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: Graduate standing in History.
Intensive study of selected topics in United States history. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. Total credit limited to 12 units. 4 seminars.
HIST 506. Graduate Seminar in European History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: Graduate standing in History.
Intensive study of selected topics in modern European history. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. Total credit limited to 12 units. 4 seminars.
HIST 507. Graduate Seminar in East Asian History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: SP
Prerequisite: Graduate standing in History.
Intensive study of selected topics in East Asian history. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. Total credit limited to 12 units. 4 seminars.
HIST 508. Graduate Seminar in Latin American History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: Graduate standing in History.
Intensive study of selected topics in Latin American history. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. Total credit limited to 12 units. 4 seminars.
HIST 509. Graduate Seminar in African History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: Graduate standing in History.
Intensive study of selected topics in African history. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. Total credit limited to 12 units. 4 seminars.
HIST 510. Graduate Seminar in Comparative History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: W
Prerequisite: Graduate standing in History.
Intensive study of selective topics in comparative history. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. Total credit limited to 12 units. 4 seminars.
HIST 511. Graduate Seminar in Middle Eastern History. 4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: Graduate standing in History.
Intensive study of selected topics in Middle Eastern history. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. Total credit limited to 12 units. 4 seminars.
HIST 512. Supervised Reading for Comprehensive Exams. 2 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
Prerequisite: HIST 504 and 12 units of graduate study.
Directed supervision of reading for MA comprehensive exams. Regular consultation between advisor and student. Total credit limited to 4 units.
HIST 570. Selected Advanced Topics. 1-4 units
Term Typically Offered: TBD
Prerequisite: Graduate standing.
Directed group study of selected topics for graduate students. Open to undergraduate and graduate students. The Class Schedule will list topic selected. Total credit limited to 8 units. 1 to 4 lectures.
HIST 599. Thesis. 3 units
Term Typically Offered: F, W, SP
Prerequisite: Graduate standing in History.
Directed supervision of MA thesis. Regular consultation between advisor and student. Course to be taken three times over three separate quarters; total credit limited to 9 units.
Farah Al-Nakib
B.A., George Washington University, 2001; M.A., University of London, 2006; Ph.D., 2011.
Sarah Bridger
B.A., Brown University, 2000; M.A., Columbia University, 2005; M.Phil, 2006; Ph.D., 2011.
Christina E. Firpo
B.A., The George Washington University, 2000; M.A., University of California, Los Angeles, 2002; Ph.D., 2007.
Matthew S. Hopper
B.A., Pepperdine University, 1996; M.A., Temple University, 1998; M.A., University of California, Los Angeles, 2000; Ph.D., 2006.
Thanayi Jackson
B.A., University of California, Santa Cruz, 2000; M.A., University of Maryland, College Park, 2002; University of Maryland, Ph.D., 2016.
Molly J. Loberg
B.A., Pacific Lutheran University, 1998; M.A., Princeton University, 2002; Ph.D., 2006.
Andrew D. Morris
B.S., Harvey Mudd College, 1991; M.A., University of California, San Diego, 1996; Ph.D., 1998.
Kate Murphy
B.A., University of Virginia, 2001; M.A. Johns Hopkins University, 2003; Ph.D., 2007
Joel J. Orth
B.A., California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, 1996; M.A., Iowa State University, 1998; Ph.D., 2004.
Andrea Oñate-Madrazo
B.A., New York University, 2003; M.A., Princeton University, 2011: Ph.D., 2016
John P. Paniagua
B.A., Whittier College, 2014; Ph.D., Princeton University, 2022.
Gabriel A. Ramirez
B.A. Stanford, 2019; M.A. Yale, 2022, Ph.D., 2024.
James Tejani
B.A., University of California, San Diego, 1998; M.A., Columbia University, 2003; Ph.D., 2009.
Tom R. Trice
B.A., Louisiana College, 1981; M.A., Louisiana State University, 1987; Ph.D., University of Illinois, 1998.